Researchers seeking to learn more about stroke by studying how the body responds to toxins in snake venom are this week releasing new findings that they hope will aid in the development of therapies for heart disease and, surprisingly, cancer.

A discovery of fossilized footprints reveals when reptiles first conquered dry land. The 318-million-year-old reptile footprints were found in sea-cliffs on the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada. They show that reptiles were the first vertebrates (animals with a backbone) to conquer dry continental interiors.

Sometimes divers, to their own painful dismay, do belly flops. But did you ever see a frog belly flop? That's just what primitive living frogs do, according to a new study looking at the evolution of frog jumping and landing. They found that frogs became proficient at jumping before they perfected landing. This evolutionary split, characterized by an inability to rapidly rotate the limbs forward during flight in order to land front legs first, might also explain why primitive frogs' back legs are out-of-phase with one another when they swim.

The first before-and-after view of an amphibian die-off has just been published. Using DNA barcodes, they showed that the fungal disease that wipes out frogs -- chytridiomycosis -- has killed an estimated 30 species of amphibians in Panama, including five species previously unidentified by scientists.

The population sizes of six species of sea turtles listed as either endangered or threatened in the United States cannot be accurately determined based on currently available information, says a new report from the National Research Council. The report adds that key data regarding birth and survival rates, breeding patterns, and other information will be required to predict and understand changes in populations and create successful management and conservation plans.

Scientists have been using a Mexican aquatic salamander called an axolotl to study the evolution and genetics of stem cells -- research that supports the development of regenerative medicine to treat the consequences of disease and injury using stem cell therapies.

As global warming threatens many animal species with extinction, the cane toad is set to flourish with increasing temperature. This is a major cause for concern as the cane toad, once introduced to Australia as agricultural pest-control of the cane beetle, is an already highly invasive species and considered a pest in Australia.

Scientists have used Computer Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI to reveal, for the first time noninvasively, how a snake adapts its internal organs in preparation for a big meal and during digestion, until it has disappeared completely. The images could be valuable supplements to traditional textbook sketches, diminishing the need for invasive research and dissections.

A fascinating new study combines snakes with brain imaging in order to uncover neural mechanisms associated with "courage." The research provides new insight into what happens in the brain when an individual voluntarily performs an action opposite to that promoted by ongoing fear and may even lead to new treatment strategies for those who exhibit a failure to overcome their fear.

Millions of years before humans began battling it out over beachfront property, a similar phenomenon was unfolding in a diverse group of island lizards. Often mistaken for chameleons or geckos, Anolis lizards fight fiercely for resources, responding to rivals by doing push-ups and puffing out their throat pouches. But anoles also compete in ways that shape their bodies over evolutionary time, says a new study.

While trying to understand a disease that is wiping out frogs worldwide, researchers discovered a new frog species.

In nature, ultraviolet radiation from sunlight is not the amphibian killer scientists once suspected. Naturally occurring murky water and females who choose to lay their eggs in the shade keep embryos of one of the nation's most UV-sensitive amphibian species out of harm's way most of the time, new research shows.

Journal of Herpetology, Volume 44, Issue 2, Page 209-221, June 2010.

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Herpetological Monographs, Volume 23, Issue 1, Page 45-73, December 2009.

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The notes and descriptions given in this catalogue are confined to the Ophidia, or serpents, of Nebraska. The range of the collections made included representative localities in different parts of the state, and only specimens actually examined by the author are included in the catalogue. The localities by counties are represented on the accompanying map. Localities represented by the specimens examined by the author at the time of making out this catalogue are indicated by the solid circular blotches. The rings indicate the localities represented in the collections of the National Museum as published in Yarrow's Check List. In addition, many specimens, in the check list and elsewhere, are reported as from "Nebraska," and, of course, cannot be located.

The author has published in the proceedings of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture a complete catalogue of Nebraska serpents including notes and descriptions of the adults and young. Since the preparation of this catalogue Prof. Cope's review of North American snakes has appeared. This together with the fact that the author has had time to review his own studies and add many other notes is sufficient excuse for offering the present catalogue. In the classification we have followed Prof. Cope. The notes given are confined to the Ophidia or serpents of Nebraska. The range of the collection, which was quite a large one, included the whole State, and only specimens actually examined by the author are included. Typical specimens have been preserved.

Lizards in the genus Xenosaurus (Xenosauridae) show a flattened morphology, which is presumably an adaptation for their crevice-dwelling habits. Despite their general morphological similarities (Ballinger et al., 2000a), there is considerable variation among species and populations in ecological traits, and even populations of nominally the same species (e.g., X. grandis grandis and X. g. agrenon; Ballinger et al., 1995; Lemos-Espinal et al., 2003a) show variation, sometimes as much as between different species. Populations of Xenosaurus are often geographically isolated (e.g., Pérez Ramos et al., 2000; Nieto Montes de Oca, 2001), and movement appears to be minimal (Lemos-Espinal et al., in press), and thus each population may be relatively isolated genetically and subject to local adaptation. Unfortunately, there are very few studied populations of Xenosaurus and in only one species has more than one population been studied (X. grandis; Ballinger et al., 1995; Lemos-Espinal et al., 2003a). In order to further our understanding of variation within this genus, we report on the ecology of a distinct population of X. platyceps from Querétaro. This is the second population of X. platyceps for which we have ecological data (see Lemos-Espinal et al., 1997b for a population of X. platyceps from Tamaulipas). These two populations are separated by 280 km. Both populations are found in oak forest, although the Querétaro population is in denser forest than the Tamaulipas population. In addition, the area in which the Querétaro population lives is rockier and on a greater slope than the Tamaulipas population.

We studied the ecology of a population of Sceloporus undulatus speari from the Transmontane Sand Dune region of northern Chihuahua, México. Most of the individuals in our population used fence posts or yucca plants as perches and were only rarely seen on the ground. The majority of individuals in our population were seen in full sun, although a substantial number were in shade. Mean body temperature in our population was 35.2°C. Individuals first seen in full sun had lower Tbs than individuals first seen in shade. Lizards using different microhabitats (e.g., yucca vs. fence post) had different body temperatures. Clutch size in our population was 5.23 eggs per clutch. Clutch size in our population was not statistically significantly related to female body size; however, the trend was for an increase in clutch size with SVL, with the smallest females having the smallest clutches. We found no evidence for sexual dimorphism in body size (SVL) in our population of S. undulatus, but males had larger heads. Coleopterans (particularly tenebrionids) and hymenopterans (particularly formicids) were the most important prey items.

A major study has found that we’ve just had the warmest decade since 1870, based on data from many different indicators of climate.

A new infrared test can find oil contamination without having to send samples off to a lab, making oil exploration and cleanup easier.

Researchers have found the cause of damage from Huntington’s disease – finally giving them something to aim drugs at.

A commonly used anti-HIV drug is associated with a higher risk of heart attacks, and a new study has demonstrated why.

Taking paracetamol with fish oil could be the safest and best method of pain relief for people with arthritis, a new study shows.

Most evaluations of the effects of human activities on wild animals have focused on estimating changes in abundance and distribution of threatened species; however, ecosystem disturbances also affect aspects of animal behavior such as short-term movement, activity budgets, and reproduction. It may take a long time for changes in behavior to manifest as changes in abundance or distribution. Therefore, it is important to have methods with which to detect short-term behavioral responses to human activity. We used continuous acoustic and seismic monitoring to evaluate the short-term effects of seismic prospecting for oil on forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) in Gabon, Central Africa. We monitored changes in elephant abundance and activity as a function of the frequency and intensity of acoustic and seismic signals from dynamite detonation and human activity. Elephants did not flee the area being explored; the relative number of elephants increased in a seasonal pattern typical of elsewhere in the ecosystem. In the exploration area, however, they became more nocturnal. Neither the intensity nor the frequency of dynamite blasts affected the frequency of calling or the daily pattern of elephant activity. Nevertheless, the shift of activity to nocturnal hours became more pronounced as human activity neared each monitored area of forest. This change in activity pattern and its likely causes would not have been detected through standard monitoring methods, which are not sensitive to behavioral changes over short time scales (e.g., dung transects, point counts) or cover a limited area (e.g., camera traps). Simultaneous acoustic monitoring of animal communication, human, and environmental sounds allows the documentation of short-term behavioral changes in response to human disturbance. La mayoría de las evaluaciones de los efectos de actividades humanas sobre animales silvestres se han concentrado en la estimación de cambios en la abundancia y distribución de especies amenazadas; sin embargo, las perturbaciones del ecosistema también afectan aspectos del comportamiento animal como el movimiento de corto plazo, presupuestos de actividad y reproducción. Puede tomar mucho tiempo para que los cambios de comportamiento se manifiesten como cambios en la abundancia o distribución. Por lo tanto, es importante contar con métodos para la detección de respuestas conductuales de corto plazo a la actividad humana. Utilizamos monitoreo acústico y sísmico para evaluar los efectos de corto plazo de la prospección petrolera sísmica sobre elefantes (Loxodonta cyclotis) en Gabón, África Central. Monitoreamos cambios en la abundancia y actividad de elefantes como una función de la frecuencia e intensidad de las señales acústicas y sísmicas de la detonación de dinamita y la actividad humana. Los elefantes no huyeron del área en exploración; el número relativo de elefantes incrementó siguiendo un patrón estacional atípico en el ecosistema. Sin embargo, se volvieron más nocturnos en el de exploración. Ni la intensidad ni la frecuencia de las detonaciones de dinamita afectaron la frecuencia de llamados ni el patrón diario de actividad de los elefantes. Sin embargo, el cambio de actividad a las horas nocturnas se volvió más pronunciado a medida que la actividad humana se acercaba a cada área de bosque monitoreada. Este cambio en el patrón de actividades y sus probables causas no hubieran sido detectadas por medio de métodos estándares de monitoreo, que no son sensibles a los cambios conductuales en escalas de tiempo cortas (e. g., transectos de excremento, conteos por puntos) o cubren un área limitada (e. g., trampas de cámara). El monitoreo acústico simultáneo de la comunicación animal y de sonidos humanos y ambientales permite la documentación de cambios conductuales de corto plazo como respuesta a la perturbación humana.

Protected areas must be close, or connected, enough to allow for the preservation of large-scale ecological and evolutionary processes, such as gene flow, migration, and range shifts in response to climate change. Nevertheless, it is unknown whether the network of protected areas in the United States is connected in a way that will preserve biodiversity over large temporal and spatial scales. It is also unclear whether protected-area networks that function for larger species will function for smaller species. We assessed the connectivity of protected areas in the three largest biomes in the United States. With methods from graph theory[mdash]a branch of mathematics that deals with connectivity and flow[mdash]we identified and measured networks of protected areas for three different groups of mammals. We also examined the value of using umbrella species (typically large-bodied, far-ranging mammals) in designing large-scale networks of protected areas. Although the total amount of protected land varied greatly among biomes in the United States, overall connectivity did not. In general, protected-area networks were well connected for large mammals but not for smaller mammals. Additionally, it was not possible to predict connectivity for small mammals on the basis of connectivity for large mammals, which suggests the umbrella species approach may not be an appropriate design strategy for conservation networks intended to protect many species. Our findings indicate different strategies should be used to increase the likelihood of persistence for different groups of species. Strategic linkages of existing lands should be a conservation priority for smaller mammals, whereas conservation of larger mammals would benefit most from the protection of more land. Las áreas protegidas deben estar lo suficientemente cercanas, o conectadas, para permitir la preservación de procesos ecológicos y evolutivos a gran escala, como el flujo genético, la migración y los cambios de distribución en respuesta al cambio climático. Sin embargo, se desconoce sí la red de áreas protegidas en los Estados Unidos está conectada de manera que preserve la biodiversidad en escalas temporales y espaciales grandes. Tampoco está claro sí las redes de áreas protegidas que funcionan para especies mayores funcionarán para especies más pequeñas. Evaluamos la conectividad de las áreas protegidas en las tres biomas más grandes en los Estados Unidos. Con métodos derivados de la teoría de grafos [ndash] una rama de las matemáticas que trata con la conectividad y el flujo [ndash] identificamos y medimos redes de áreas protegidas para tres grupos diferentes de mamíferos. También examinamos el valor de la utilización de especies paraguas (típicamente mamíferos de talla grande y amplio rango de distribución) en el diseño de redes de áreas protegidas a gran escala. Aunque la cantidad total de terrenos protegidos varió enormemente entre biomas en los Estados Unidos, no fue así con la conectividad. En general, las redes de áreas protegidas estuvieron bien conectadas para mamíferos mayores pero no para mamíferos más pequeños. Adicionalmente, no fue posible predecir la conectividad para mamíferos pequeños con base en la conectividad para mamíferos mayores, lo que sugiere que el enfoque de especie paraguas puede ser una estrategia de diseño inapropiada para redes de conservación que intentan proteger muchas especies. Nuestros hallazgos indican que se deben utilizar diferentes estrategias para incrementar la probabilidad de persistencia de diferentes grupos de especies. La conexión estratégica de terrenos existente debe ser una prioridad para la conservación de mamíferos pequeños, mientras que la conservación de mamíferos mayores se beneficiaría más con la protección de más terrenos.

Connectivity among populations plays a crucial role in maintaining genetic variation at a local scale, especially in small populations affected strongly by genetic drift. The negative consequences of population disconnection on allelic richness and gene diversity (heterozygosity) are well recognized and empirically established. It is not well recognized, however, that a sudden drop in local effective population size induced by such disconnection produces a temporary disequilibrium in allelic frequency distributions that is akin to the genetic signature of a demographic bottleneck. To document this effect, we used individual-based simulations and empirical data on allelic richness and gene diversity in six pairs of isolated versus well-connected (core) populations of European tree frogs. In our simulations, population disconnection depressed allelic richness more than heterozygosity and thus resulted in a temporary excess in gene diversity relative to mutation drift equilibrium (i.e., signature of a genetic bottleneck). We observed a similar excess in gene diversity in isolated populations of tree frogs. Our results show that population disconnection can create a genetic bottleneck in the absence of demographic collapse. La conectividad entre poblaciones juega un papel crucial en el mantenimiento de la variación genética a escala local, especialmente en poblaciones pequeñas afectadas por la deriva génica. Las consecuencias negativas de la desconexión de la población sobre la riqueza alélica y la diversidad genética (heterocigosidad) están bien reconocidas y establecidas empíricamente. Sin embargo, no está bien reconocido que una disminución repentina en el tamaño poblacional efectivo inducida por tal desconexión produce un desequilibrio temporal en las distribuciones de frecuencias alélicas que es comparable con la firma genética de un cuello de botella demográfico. Para documentar este efecto, utilizamos simulaciones basadas en individuos y datos empíricos de la riqueza alélica y diversidad genética en seis pares de poblaciones aisladas deHyla arboreaversus poblaciones bien conectadas (núcleo). En nuestras simulaciones, la desconexión poblacional deprimió la riqueza alélica más que la heterocigosidad y por lo tanto resultó en un exceso temporal de diversidad genética en relación con el equilibrio por deriva mutacional (i. e., firma de un cuello de botella genético). Observamos un exceso similar en la diversidad genética en poblaciones aisladas deH. arbórea. Nuestros resultados muestran que la desconexión de la población puede crear un cuello de botella genético en la ausencia de un colapso demográfico.

The rapidity of climate change is predicted to exceed the ability of many species to adapt or to disperse to more climatically favorable surroundings. Conservation of these species may require managed relocation (also called assisted migration or assisted colonization) of individuals to locations where the probability of their future persistence may be higher. The history of non-native species throughout the world suggests managed relocation may not be applicable universally. Given the constrained existence of freshwater organisms within highly dendritic networks containing isolated ponds, lakes, and rivers, managed relocation may represent a useful conservation strategy. Yet, these same distinctive properties of freshwater ecosystems may increase the probability of unintended ecological consequences. We explored whether managed relocation is an ecologically sound conservation strategy for freshwater systems and provided guidelines for identifying candidates and localities for managed relocation. A comparison of ecological and life-history traits of freshwater animals associated with high probabilities of extirpation and invasion suggests that it is possible to select species for managed relocation to minimize the likelihood of unintended effects to recipient ecosystems. We recommend that translocations occur within the species' historical range and optimally within the same major river basin and that lacustrine and riverine species be translocated to physically isolated seepage lakes and upstream of natural or artificial barriers, respectively, to lower the risk of secondary spread across the landscape. We provide five core recommendations to enhance the scientific basis of guidelines for managed relocation in freshwater environments: adopt the term managed translocation to reflect the fact that individuals will not always be reintroduced within their historical native range; examine the trade-off between facilitation of individual movement and the probability of range expansion of non-native species; determine which species and locations might be immediately considered for managed translocation; adopt a hypothetico-deductive framework by conducting experimental trials to introduce species of conservation concern into new areas within their historical range; build on previous research associated with species reintroductions through communication and synthesis of case studies. Está pronosticado que la rapidez del cambio climático excederá la habilidad de muchas especies para adaptarse o dispersarse a ambientes más favorables climáticamente. La conservación de estas especies puede requerir la reubicación controlada (también llamada migración asistida o colonización asistida) de individuos hacia localidades en las que puede ser mayor la probabilidad de su persistencia futura. La historia de especies no nativas en todo el mundo sugiere que la reubicación controlada puede no ser aplicable universalmente. Debido a la existencia limitada de organismos acuáticos en redes sumamente dendríticas que contienen charcas aisladas, lagos y ríos, la reubicación controlada puede representar una estrategia de conservación útil. Pero, estas mismas propiedades distintivas de los ecosistemas dulceacuícolas pueden incrementar la probabilidad de consecuencias ecológicas no planeadas. Exploramos sí la reubicación controlada es una estrategia de conservación válida para los sistemas dulceacuícolas y proporciona directrices para la identificación de candidatos y localidades para la reubicación controlada. La comparación de atributos ecológicos y de historia de vida de animales dulceacuícolas asociados con altas probabilidades de extirpación e invasión sugiere que es posible seleccionar especies para la reubicación controlada para minimizar la probabilidad de efectos no planeados en los ecosistemas receptores. Recomendamos que las translocaciones se lleven a cabo dentro del rango de distribución histórica de la especie y, óptimamente, en la misma cuenca hidrológica y que las especies lacustres y de río sean translocadas a lagos aislados físicamente y río arriba de barreras naturales o artificiales, respectivamente, para reducir el riesgo de dispersión secundaria en el paisaje. Proporcionamos 5 recomendaciones clave para incrementar la base científica de las directrices para la reubicación controlada en ambientes dulceacuícolas: adoptar el término translocación controlada para reflejar el hecho de que los individuos no siempre serán reintroducidos en su rango histórico de distribución nativa; examinar los pros y contras de la facilitación del movimiento individual y la probabilidad de la expansión del rango de distribución de especies no nativas; determinar las especies y localidades que pueden ser consideradas inmediatamente para la reubicación controlada; adoptar un marco hipotético-deductivo mediante el desarrollo de pruebas experimentales para introducir especies de interés para la conservación en áreas nuevas en su rango de distribución histórica; basarse en investigaciones previas de reintroducciones de especies mediante la comunicación y síntesis de estudios de caso.

Information required to evaluate the extent to which species are at risk of extinction is usually limited and characterized as highly uncertain. In this context, we define information availability as the presence or absence of information used to determine the value of an ecological variable. We examined which of three hypothetical approaches best matched how levels of risk are assigned to species: (1) precautionary approach in which analysts designate levels of risk regardless of the amount of information available, (2) worst-case approach in which analysts assign the maximum level of risk possible from the criteria, and (3) insurance approach in which analysts assign poorly known species to a high-risk category when little information is available. We used the quantitative assessment criteria of the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) as a case study. We created a binary (0/1) matrix of all 2.4192 × 107 logical combinations of available information for the 14 ecological variables included in the quantitative criteria. We processed each combination of information availability represented in the matrix with a computer algorithm designed to emulate COSEWIC decision-making rules. Low information availability was associated with a relatively high frequency of not being able to assign a candidate taxon to a risk category, which does not follow the precautionary principle. Information availability and the level of risk assigned to species were directly related, which is associated with the worst-case approach, and counter to the insurance approach. Our results suggest that information availability can have a major effect on the level of risk assigned to a species. We recommend a conscious determination of whether such effects are desired, and we recommend the development of methods to explicitly characterize and incorporate information availability and other sources of uncertainty in decision-making processes. La información requerida para evaluar la medida en que las especies están en riesgo de extinción generalmente es limitada y está caracterizada como muy incierta. En este contexto, definimos la disponibilidad de información como la presencia o ausencia de información utilizada para determinar el valor de una variable ecológica. Examinamos cuál de tres métodos hipotéticos coinciden con la forma en que se asignan los niveles de riesgo a las especies: (1) principio precautorio, los analistas designan niveles de riesgo independientemente de la cantidad de información disponible, (2) el peor escenario, los analistas asignan el máximo nivel de riesgo posible de los criterios, y (3) enfoque de aseguramiento, los analistas asignan una categoría de riesgo alta a las especies poco conocidas cuando se dispone de poca información Utilizamos los criterios de evaluación cuantitativa del Comité sobre el Estatus de Vida Silvestre en Peligro en Canadá (COSEWIC) como un estudio de caso. Creamos una matriz binaria (0/1) de todas las 2.4192 × 107 combinaciones lógicas de la información disponible para 14 variables ecológicas incluidas en los criterios cuantitativos. Procesamos cada combinación de disponibilidad de información representada en la matriz con un algoritmo diseñado para emular las reglas de toma de decisiones del COSEWIC. La poca disponibilidad de información fue asociada con una frecuencia relativamente alta de incapacidad de asignar un taxón candidato a una categoría de riesgo, que no sigue el principio precautorio. La disponibilidad de información y el nivel de riesgo asignado a las especies estuvieron relacionadas directamente, lo cual se asocia con el método del peor escenario, y contrario al método del aseguramiento. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la disponibilidad de información puede tener un efecto mayor sobre el nivel de riesgo asignado a una especie. Recomendamos que se determine conscientemente sí tales efectos son deseados, y recomendamos que se desarrollen métodos para explícitamente caracterizar e incorporar la disponibilidad de información y otras fuentes de incertidumbre en los procesos de toma de decisiones.

Geophys. Res. Lett. doi:10.1029/2010GL042496 (2010)Rapid loss of floating sea ice is contributing a tiny amount, 50 micrometres, to the current annual global sea-level rise of around 3 millimetres.Andrew Shepherd of the University of Leeds, UK, and his colleagues

The Canadian government should rethink its decision to change the way census data are collected.

Producing enough food for the world's population in 2050 will be easy. But doing it at an acceptable cost to the planet will depend on research into everything from high-tech seeds to low-tech farming practices.

Phys. Rev. Lett. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.031301 (2010)The mass of the elusive neutrino is less than 0.28 electronvolts — the lowest upper limit predicted so far — according to Shaun Thomas and his colleagues at University College London.Neutrinos are abundant in

Geology38, 711–714 (2010) 10.1130/G30829.1Fossil burrows in ocean sediments from the Precambrian–Cambrian period about 540 million years ago are ubiquitous in the fossil record, but the creatures that created these Treptichnus burrows (pictured, left) remained a mystery.

Ecology, Volume 0, Issue 0, Ahead of Print.

Ecology, Volume 91, Issue 8, Page 2356-2365, August 2010.

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